Definition: Taswir (Image-Making)

Taswir in the Arabic language means making a surah (image). A surah is the specific form or shape that distinguishes one thing from another. Among the names of Allah is al-Musawwir (the Fashioner), meaning: the One who gave form to all existing things and arranged them, giving each one its particular form and unique shape, despite their variety and number (Lisan al-Arab, entry: surah).

In the hadith of Ibn Umar, the face was referred to as a surah. He said (may Allah be pleased with him): The Prophet ﷺ forbade striking the surah or branding on the face (Hadith: The Prophet ﷺ forbade striking the image… Reported by al-Bukhari, Fath al-Bari 9/670, Dar al-Salafiyyah edition, from the hadith of Abdullah ibn Umar, and reported by Muslim 3/1673, al-Halabi edition).

That is, it is forbidden to strike the face or brand an animal on the face.

Taswir also means to describe or portray the image of something, that is, its features. It is said: “I sawwartu (described) the matter to someone,” meaning I explained or depicted it for him.

Taswir also means making a surah, which is a replica of something, something that mimics or portrays its shape or appearance, whether the image is three-dimensional or flat, or as some jurists say, with or without shade.

A three-dimensional image, or one with shade, is one with three dimensions, meaning it has physical volume such that its parts protrude and can be felt, in addition to being seen.

As for flat images, or those without shade, they are two-dimensional. Their parts are distinguished only by sight and not by touch because they do not protrude. This includes images on paper, fabric, or smooth surfaces.

In the terminology of the jurists, taswir and surah follow the usage found in the language. A surah may also be called a taswirah, and its plural is tasawir. In the Sunnah, this term appears in the hadith of Aisha (may Allah be pleased with her) regarding the curtain, in which the Prophet ﷺ said: “Remove from us this curtain, for its tasawir keep appearing in my prayer” (Hadith: “Remove from us this curtain…” Reported by al-Bukhari, Fath al-Bari 1/484, Dar al-Salafiyyah edition).

Types of Images

In addition to the types of images we already mentioned as being fixed or permanent, there are temporary images, such as the image of something in a mirror, or its reflection in water or on a shiny surface. These last only as long as the object remains in front of the surface. When it is removed, the image disappears.

Other non-permanent images include shadows created when an object faces a light source. There is also what was known in certain periods of Islamic history as images of illusion or shadow images.

These involved cutting out paper figures of people, attaching them to small sticks, and moving them in front of a lamp so that their shadows appeared on a white screen behind which the viewers stood, thus seeing what was essentially the image of an image.

Another kind of non-permanent image is the television image. It lasts only as long as the video is playing, and when it stops, the image disappears.

3 An image may be of a living, intelligent being with a soul, such as a human. Or of a living, unintelligent creature like a bird or lion. Or it may be of a living thing that is not an animal, such as a tree, flower, or plant. It may also be of inanimate natural objects, like the sun, moon, stars, and mountains. Or it may be of human-made objects, such as a house, car, lighthouse, or ship.

Statues (Tamathil)

Tamathil is the plural of timthal, pronounced with a kasrah on the letter ta’. A timthal is an image of something formed in another medium.

The word comes from mumathalah (resemblance or similarity), meaning equality or likeness between two things. Tamthil means depiction or imitation. It is said: maththala lahu al-shay’ if someone illustrated or portrayed something to another as if he were seeing it. And maththaltu lahu katha means: I described or drew a likeness of it, whether in writing or otherwise. In the hadith: “The most severely punished people are the muthallin from among the image-makers” (Hadith: “The most severely punished people are the muthallin…” Reported by Ahmad 1/407, al-Maimaniyyah edition, and authenticated by Ahmad Shakir in his commentary on the Musnad 5/332, al-Ma’arif edition), meaning those who make images. The shadow of everything is its timthal (Lisan al-Arab, entry: mathala).

So the difference between a timthal (statue) and a surah (image) is that a surah may refer to the thing itself or to something that depicts it, while a timthal is specifically something that imitates and resembles another thing. One does not refer to the actual thing itself as a timthal.

In contemporary usage, the term timthal refers in public understanding to a three-dimensional image of a human, familiar animal, or mythical animal, but not to images of plants or inanimate objects. Also, the image must be three-dimensional. So artificial plants or depictions of buildings are not called tamathil, nor are flat images of people or animals.

What shows that the original linguistic meaning of timthal differs from the modern understanding is the statement of Aisha (may Allah be pleased with her): “We had a curtain that had the timthal of a bird,” and her other statement: “I covered a niche with a curtain that had tamathil.”

A curtain is a flat surface, not a three-dimensional object. Perhaps, from the collection of narrations, one may infer that the tamathil in question were in the room and were children’s toys that were three-dimensional, not merely flat drawings on the curtain.

Also showing that timthal can refer to inanimate representations is what is reported in Sahih al-Bukhari that the Antichrist will come accompanied by timthal al-jannah and al-nar (images of Paradise and Hell) (Hadith: “And he comes with the timthal of Paradise and Hell,” reported by al-Bukhari 4/163, Muhammad Subaih edition. In another narration: “with the mithal (representation).”).

As for how the jurists use the terms, by reviewing their statements, it becomes clear that most of them do not distinguish in usage between the words surah and timthal, although some of them restricted timthal to what depicts a being with a soul, such as a human or animal, whether the image is three-dimensional or flat, and excluded depictions of the sun, moon, or houses. As for surah, it is broader. Ibn ʿAbidin reported this from al-Maghrib (Ibn ʿAbidin 1/435, Bulaq edition. See also al-Maghrib, p. 422).

This research follows the more common usage among jurists, which treats surah and timthal as having the same meaning—an image that depicts something.

Drawing (Rasm)

Rasm in the Arabic language means the trace or mark left by something. Some said it is the remainder of a trace. The trace may resemble the form of the original. Hence, a rasm also refers to a carved wooden stamp with engravings used to mark objects for preservation so they are not misused. Ibn Sayyidah said: “al-Rusm is a stamp.” Hence, al-Marsum (something drawn) is what has been sealed or marked (Lisan al-Arab, entry: rasm).

In modern usage, rasm means a flat image or two-dimensional drawing if it is made by hand. A photographic image is not called rasm. For example, one says: “I drew a house, or a person, or a tree.”

Decoration (Tazwiq), Carving (Naqsh), Embroidery (Washi), and Patterning (Raqm)

These four words are nearly synonymous. They all refer to beautifying an object, whether flat or not, by adding ornamental designs, whether geometric shapes, miniature patterns, pictures, or other forms. The author of Lisan al-Arab said: A cloth that is munamman means that it is ornamented and decorated. He said: Naqsh means miniature decoration (numnumah). So each of these can involve images or other forms.

Sculpting (Nahat)

Nahat is the process of cutting away from a solid block like stone or wood using a sharp tool such as a chisel or knife, so that what remains takes the desired shape. If the resulting shape resembles something else, then it is a timthal or surah. If not, then it is not.

Rulings Related to the Human Image

A person should care about beautifying his outward image, along with working to perfect his inner image. He should fulfil the right of Allah by thanking Him for making his form beautiful.

Caring for the inner image involves having faith, cleansing oneself from sins, giving thanks to Allah, and adopting good character.

Caring for the outward image involves purifying oneself through wudu and ghusl, staying clean, removing unpleasant bodily matters, and adorning oneself with what is allowed, such as taking care of one’s hair, wearing good clothes, and so on (see: adornment).

It is not allowed for a person to disfigure his body by destroying one of its parts or altering it from the form Allah created it in. Nor is it allowed for him to do this to someone else, except where Allah has allowed it. The Prophet ﷺ forbade mutilation and disfigurement (Hadith: The Prophet ﷺ forbade mutilation and disfigurement. Reported by al-Bukhari, Fath al-Bari 5/119, Dar al-Salafiyyah edition, from the hadith of Abdullah ibn Yazid al-Ansari, may Allah be pleased with him). (See: muthlah).

Al-Mawsu’ah al-Fiqhiyyah al-Muqaranah Al-Tajrid (12/92-95)

The First Opinion on Making Flat Images

The opinion of the Malikis and those who agreed with them is that making flat images is permissible in general, although it is disliked.

However, if the images are found in things that are used and walked on, then there is no dislike, but it is considered less preferred. The dislike is also lifted if the images are missing a body part without which life cannot continue.

The evidence used to support this view includes the following:

1. The hadith of Abu Talhah, also narrated by Zayd ibn Khalid al-Juhani, and Sahl ibn Hunayf رضي الله عنهم that the Prophet ﷺ said: “The angels do not enter a house in which there is an image, except for a design on a cloth” (Hadith: “The angels do not enter a house in which there is an image, except for a design on a cloth.” Reported by al-Bukhari, Fath al-Bari 10/389, Dar al-Salafiyyah edition, and by Muslim 3/1665, al-Halabi edition). This hadith is restricted in meaning, so it is used to interpret all the other reports that prohibit images and curse image-makers.

2. The hadith of Abu Hurayrah رضي الله عنه‎ in a marfuʿ form that the Prophet ﷺ said that Allah said in a sacred hadith: “Who is more unjust than one who tries to create like My creation? Let them create a grain, or let them create a seed” (The hadith was already referenced in paragraph 15).The reasoning behind this is that Allah did not create living beings as flat forms, rather He created them as three-dimensional beings (This point was mentioned by Ibn Hajar in Fath al-Bari 10/386).

3. The use of such images in the house of the Prophet ﷺ. It has already been mentioned that he used a curtain with images as a cushion, resting against it. In some narrations, it says: “It had images.” In another narration, she said: “We had a curtain with the image of a bird on it. When anyone would enter, it would face him. The Prophet ﷺ said to me, ‘Move this curtain away, for whenever I enter and see it, I am reminded of the worldly life’” (Reported by Muslim 3/1666, al-Halabi edition)

. So he gave a reason for that, as he ﷺ was keen not to be distracted by the worldly life and its decorations from calling to Allah and being devoted to His worship. This does not necessitate prohibition for the rest of the ummah.

In another narration from Anas رضي الله عنه‎ , he said that the Prophet ﷺ told her: “Remove this curtain from us, for its images keep appearing in my prayer” (Reported by al-Bukhari, Fath al-Bari 1/484, Dar al-Salafiyyah edition). And in a third narration, he gave a different reason when he tore the curtain and said: “O Aisha, do not cover the wall” (Reported by al-Tahawi in Sharh Maʿani al-Athar 4/283). And he said: “Indeed Allah did not command us to cover stones and mud” (Reported by Muslim 3/1666, al-Halabi edition, from the hadith of Aisha, may Allah be pleased with her).

This meaning is clearly shown in the hadith of Safinah, the freed slave of the Prophet ﷺ, that Ali ibn Abi Talib رضي الله عنه invited the Prophet ﷺ to his house. When he arrived, he put his hand down then turned back. Fatimah said to Ali: “Go after him and ask what made him turn back.” So he followed him and asked: “O Messenger of Allah, what made you return?” He said: “It is not for me—or he said: it is not for a Prophet—to enter a decorated house” (Reported by Abu Dawud 4/133, verified by ʿIzzat ʿUbayd Daʿas, and authenticated in summary by Ibn Hibban, p. 352, Mawarid al-Dham’an, Dar al-Salafiyyah edition).

This was also narrated by Abdullah ibn Umar رضي الله عنهم in al-Bukhari and Abu Dawud. In his narration: “He saw a curtain with patterns.” And in it he said: “What do we have to do with the worldly life? What do we have to do with decoration?” Fatimah then asked him: “What should we do with it?” He said: “Send it to people in need” (Reported by al-Bukhari, Fath al-Bari 5/228, Dar al-Salafiyyah edition, and Abu Dawud 4/382, verified by ʿIzzat ʿUbayd Daʿas). Al-Nasa’i also narrated that the curtain had images on it (Jamiʿ al-Usul 4/815).

4 The Prophet ﷺ and his companions used Roman dinars and Persian dirhams that had the images of their kings, as they had no other currency at the time except copper coins. Umar ibn al-Khattab رضي الله عنه, as mentioned in books on the history of currency, struck coins based on the Persian mint, and they had images on them. Muʿawiyah رضي الله عنه also struck dinars with images after erasing the cross. Then ʿAbd al-Malik struck coins with his image wearing a sword. Later, he and al-Walid struck coins free of images (See: “The Islamic Dinar in the Iraqi Museum” by Sayyid Nasir al-Naqshbandi, Baghdad, Iraqi Academy of Sciences, 1372 AH, pp. 17, 18, 20, 24, 82, and “Arabic Coins and the Science of Numismatics” by Anastas al-Karmali, which includes al-Maqrizi’s book on Islamic currency).

5 What has been narrated from some of the companions and followers about their use of images in curtains and other flat surfaces. Among these is that Zayd ibn Khalid al-Juhani رضي الله عنهم used curtains with images, and his hadith is in the two Sahihs. It was also used by Abu Talhah رضي الله عنه and approved by Sahl ibn Hunayf رضي الله عنه and their hadith is in al-Muwatta’, al-Tirmidhi, and al-Nasa’i. They relied on what they narrated from the Prophet ﷺ that he said: “Except for a design on a cloth.”

Ibn Abi Shaybah reported from ʿUrwah ibn al-Zubayr that he used to lean on cushions that had images of birds and men (Musannaf Ibn Abi Shaybah 8/506, India edition).

Al-Tahawi narrated with his chains that the engraving on the ring of the companion ʿImran ibn Husayn رضي الله عنه was of a man wearing a sword. And that the engraving on the ring of al-Nuʿman ibn Muqarrin (may Allah be pleased with him), the commander who opened Persia, was of a deer holding one hand and stretching the other. Al-Qasim said that the engraving on the ring of Abdullah was two flies. And the engraving on the ring of Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman (may Allah be pleased with him) was two cranes. It was also reported that the engraving on the ring of Abu Hurayrah (may Allah be pleased with him) was two flies (Maʿani al-Athar by al-Tahawi 4/263, 266).

Ibn Abi Shaybah also reported with his chain from Ibn ʿAwn that he entered the house of al-Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr رضي الله عنهم while he was in his home in upper Makkah. He said: “I saw in his house a canopy with images of beavers and phoenixes.” Ibn Hajar said: “Al-Qasim ibn Muhammad was one of the jurists of Madinah, and he is the narrator of the hadith from Aisha. He was among the best people of his time” (Musannaf Ibn Abi Shaybah, India edition, 8/509, and cited by Ibn Hajar in Fath al-Bari 10/388).

Ahmad also narrated with his chain from al-Miswar ibn Makhramah, who said: “I entered upon Ibn Abbas to visit him during an illness. I said: What are these images on the stove? He said: Do you not see that we have burned them with fire? When al-Miswar left, he said: Cut off the heads of these figures. They said: O Abu al-ʿAbbas, if you took them to the market, they would sell for more. He said: No. And he ordered the heads to be cut off” (Musnad Ahmad 1/320).

The Second Opinion on Flat Images (Non-Three-Dimensional)

That it is prohibited just like making three-dimensional images. This is the view of the majority of scholars among the Hanafis, Shafiʿis, and Hanbalis, and was reported from many of the Salaf.

Some who held this view made exceptions for cut-off images, images that are disrespected, and other cases, as will be discussed later in this research.

They used as proof the general wording of hadiths in which the Prophet ﷺ cursed the image-makers, and that the image-maker will be punished on the Day of Judgement by being commanded to breathe life into every image he made. The images of trees and similar non-living things are excluded from this based on earlier evidence, so the rest remain prohibited.

They said: As for the argument that the Prophet ﷺ used cushions with images and that the companions and followers used them too, then this only shows that using such images is allowed, not that making them is allowed. Because the text clearly prohibits image-making and curses the image-maker, and that is something different from using an object that happens to have an image. In some narrations, the reason is given as imitating the creation of Allah, which is a sin that is not found in mere usage (Ibn ʿAbidin 1/437).

Third: Cut-Off or Partial Images and Similar Cases

It has already been mentioned that the Malikis do not see the making of images of humans or animals as prohibited—whether they are three-dimensional or flat—if they are missing a visible body part without which the creature cannot live. For example, if the head is cut off, or the stomach or chest is hollowed out.

The Hanbalis agree with this. In al-Mughni, it says: If at the beginning the image was only a body without a head, or a head without a body, or the head was made but the rest of the body was drawn as something other than a living creature, then it is not included in the prohibition. In al-Furuʿ, it says: If a part of the image is removed such that life cannot continue without it, then it is not disliked, according to the explicit statements. The same applies to images of trees and similar objects, statues, and their like (See al-Mughni 7/7, Kashshaf al-Qinaʿ 5/171, al-Harashi 3/303, and al-Furuʿ 1/352–353).

This is also the view of the Shafiʿis. There is no known disagreement among them except for the isolated opinion of al-Mutawalli. However, they differed regarding whether it is allowed if the cut-off part is something other than the head while the head remains.

The stronger opinion among them is that it is prohibited in this case. In Asna al-Matalib and its commentary by al-Ramli, it says: And the same ruling applies if the head of the image is cut off. Al-Kuhkayuni said: And the same applies to images made without a head. As for heads without bodies, are they prohibited? There is some uncertainty. The stronger opinion is that it is prohibited. Al-Ramli said: There are two opinions in al-Hawi.

These two views depend on whether it is permissible to depict a creature that has no equivalent in existence. If that is allowed, then so is this. Otherwise, it is not. And that is the correct view. Both are included in the statement: “It is prohibited to depict a living being.”

The apparent meaning in Tuhfat al-Muhtaj suggests it is allowed, because he said: The absence of a head is like the absence of something that life cannot exist without (See Tuhfat al-Muhtaj 7/434, Asna al-Matalib and its commentary 3/226, al-Qalyubi on Sharh al-Minhaj 3/297).

Fourth: Making Imaginary Images

The Shafiʿis have stated clearly that imaginary images of humans or animals are included in the prohibition. They said: It is prohibited, like the image of a man with wings or a cow with a beak, or anything that has no counterpart among actual creatures. The words of the author of Rawd al-Talib suggest that there is an opinion allowing it.

It is clear that this does not include toys for children. In the hadith of Aisha رضي الله عنها it says: She had a toy horse with wings. The Prophet ﷺ saw it and laughed so much that his molars became visible

Al-Mawsu’ah al-Fiqhiyyah al-Muqaranah Al-Tajrid (12/107-111)