The Ashʿari madhhab

The Ashʿari madhhab is a doctrinal madhhab in creed that is linked to Abu al Hasan al Ashʿari (d. 324 AH). It is a method of studying belief, not a fiqh madhhab. Because many of its early and later adherents regarded themselves as Ahl al Sunnah wa al Jamaʿah, early works on sects often did not single it out by name, but discussed its views within that broader label.

Its beginning and formation

Abu al Hasan al Ashʿari first belonged to the Muʿtazilah, then left them and adopted a method influenced by Abdullah ibn Saʿid ibn Kullab. Through this shift, he introduced kalam as a tool in creed, aiming to defend Sunni belief through rational argument. This approach differed from the Salaf, who relied upon transmitted texts and the understanding of the Salaf without resorting to kalam.

Over time, the madhhab did not remain fixed upon its earliest form, but developed through clear historical stages.

Stages of development

In its first stage, represented by Abu al Hasan al Ashʿari and his immediate students, the madhhab was the closest of the later theological currents to the way of the Salaf.

In the second stage, associated with Abu al Maʿali al Juwayni (d. 478 AH), Ashʿari thought moved closer to Muʿtazili reasoning in both proofs and conclusions.

In the third stage, led by al Razi (d. 606 AH), philosophical concepts and methods entered more deeply into Ashʿari creed. After this period, the madhhab largely stabilised, and later scholars focused on summarising, systematising, and commenting upon earlier works rather than introducing major changes.

Methodological principles

The Ashʿari madhhab is known by its reliance on kalam as a foundational method in creed. While affirming the authority of the Quran and Sunnah, they usually subjects scriptural texts to rational analysis, and when an apparent conflict is perceived, interpretation is used to reconcile the texts with rational premises according to them. This lead to the main difference between the Ashʿaris and the Salaf.

Core beliefs

In the attributes of Allah, early Ashʿaris affirmed the essential and reported attributes in a general sense, while later Ashʿaris increasingly interpreted the reported attributes. The madhhab settled upon affirming seven attributes of meaning, such as life, knowledge, power, will, hearing, sight, and speech, while interpreting many attributes related to actions.

In iman, the Ashʿari madhhab holds that iman consists of inner affirmation. Outward actions are not part of its essence, but are signs of iman and means of its completion.

In al qadr(decree), the dominant Ashʿari position affirms that acts are created by Allah alone, with the human being having no real causal effect, but rather serving as the place where the act occurs. This position has been described by a number of scholars as a form of moderated compulsion.

The madhhab also adopts positions such as denying real causal efficacy in creation and denying that good and bad can be fully known by reason alone.

The Ashari’s

They were called this because they are linked to their first leader Abu al Hasan al Ashari (d. 324 AH).

When a person looks into the books that speak about sects and beliefs, he will hardly find a clear definition of the Ashari creed. The reason for this is that most of the writers whose books have reached us in this field were Asharis, and they used to count themselves as Ahl al Sunnah wa al Jamaah.

They speak about the Asharis under the name Ahl al Sunnah wa al Jamaah (the people of Sunnah and the community). So if you read the book al Milal wa al Nihal, by al Shahristani (d. 548 AH), or al Farq bayn al Firaq (The Differences between the Sects) by al Baghdadi (d. 429 AH), or other books about sects and beliefs, you will hardly find separate words about the Asharis.

Rather, they include their words about them inside what they say about Ahl al Sunnah wa al Jamaah, because they see the Asharis as representing this approach.

Even Ibn Hazm (d. 456 AH), who was one of the strongest opponents of the Ashari madhhab and saw them as people of innovation and misguidance, did not give the Asharis a separate name in his book al Fisal fi al Milal wa al Ahwa wa al Nihal.

Instead, he spoke about their beliefs and criticised them inside the section about the ugly views of the Murjiah (the Murji group). (See: al Fisal fi al Milal wa al Ahwa wa al Nihal, volume 5, pages 73 to 96.)

We can define the Ashari group by saying: it is the doctrinal current that is linked to the method of Abu al Hasan al Ashari (d. 324 AH) in the study of creed.

His words, that it is the current that is linked to his method, are intended here. The Ashari madhhab did not remain as Abu al Hasan al Ashari (d. 324 AH) first set it out. Rather, it moved away from that in many ways, and the later followers became far from what he was upon in a number of issues of belief and proof.

His words, that it is linked to the method of Abu al Hasan al Ashari, mean that al Ashari brought a new method in studying creed. It was not in line with what the imams of the Salaf were upon. Instead, it was in line with the way of Abdullah ibn Said ibn Kullab (d. after 240 AH).

This way goes outside what the imams of the Salaf were upon in a number of fundamental matters. Because Abu al Hasan al Ashari (d. 324 AH) adopted the way of Ibn Kullab, he brought a number of kalam materials into creed, accepted a part of them, and believed they were correct. This had an effect on a number of his doctrinal positions. (See: Sharh al Aqidah al Wasitiyyah, Sultan al Umayri, pages 183 to 186.)

There are a number of signs that show that al Ashari (d. 324 AH) was not in full agreement with what the imams of the Salaf were upon in method, but that he brought changes in the fundamentals.

A number of scholars have spoken about this, both from his followers and from others. Explaining this, al Shahristani (d. 548 AH) says, after mentioning the way of the imams of the Salaf in the attributes:

“Then time reached Abdullah ibn Said al Kullabi and Abu al Abbas al Qalanisi and al Harith ibn Asad al Muhasibi. These were counted among the Salaf, except that they entered into the study of kalam, and they supported the beliefs of the Salaf with kalam proofs and usul (fundamental) arguments.

Some of them wrote books and taught, until there took place between Abu al Hasan al Ashari and his teacher a debate about one of the issues of al salah wa al aslah (benefit and what is most beneficial). They argued and split.

Then al Ashari joined this group, that is, the group of Ibn Kullab and those who came after him, and he supported their saying with kalam methods. This then became the madhhab of Ahl al Sunnah wa al Jamaah, and the name as Sifatiyyah moved to the Asharis.” (See: al Milal wa al Nihal, volume 1, page 91.)

The Ashari madhhab then passed through several stages and went through different developments. It is similar to the Muʿtazili madhhab in the basic fact of development and differences between early and later layers, even if it is less in the level of difference and variety. Many researchers mention that the Ashari madhhab has three main stages. (See: al Madaris al Ashariyyah, Muhammad al Shahri, pages 17 to 21.)

The first is the stage of Abu al Hasan al Ashari (d. 324 AH) and his students. In this stage the madhhab was the closest of the later madhhabs to what the imams of the Salaf were upon.

The second is the stage of Abu al Maali al Juwayni (d. 478 AH). In this stage the Asharis became closer to the Muʿtazili madhhab, as al Juwayni borrowed a number of their beliefs and proofs.

The third is the stage of al Razi (d. 606 AH) and those who came after him. In this stage the Asharis became closer to the philosophers. This is because al Razi brought a number of philosophical materials, meaning beliefs, proofs, and premises, into the structure of the Ashari madhhab. A number of later Ashari scholars have admitted this.

This shows that the change that took place within the Ashari madhhab was not only in the field of beliefs themselves. Rather, it was wider than that. It included the beliefs, the proofs, a number of premises, and a number of topics and other things.

After al Razi and al Amidi, the Ashari madhhab settled. No clear development then appeared in it. The work of those who followed the Ashari madhhab became limited to summarising, simplifying, writing commentaries and marginal notes, and similar work.

The Ashari madhhab is a large madhhab that covers all issues of creed, so it is hard to sum up its views in this place. However, we will point to what it ended up upon in the most important fundamentals of creed.

The first fundamental is the attributes. This is one of the clearest fundamentals in which the development of the Ashari madhhab appears. The early followers affirm the essential and report based attributes in a general way.

So you see them saying that Allah is established over the Throne, that He is high in His essence, and that He is described with the attribute of Face and Hands and the like. But they interpret the voluntary attributes, such as love, hate, coming, arrival, and the like.

They affirm for Allah the seven attributes of meaning, which are life, speech, sight, hearing, will, knowledge, and power. Then their position changed. Ashari scholars began to clearly interpret the report based attributes. Al Juwayni is counted among those who most strongly laid down the basis for this development and spread it.

It had appeared before him with al Baghdadi and others, but that interpretation did not become settled in the madhhab until after al Juwayni. Then the matter developed further with al Razi and those who came after him. They brought into the Ashari madhhab a number of philosophical materials and premises in arguing about the attributes of Allah. They also greatly expanded their criticism of the proofs of their own companions and in raising objections against them.

The second fundamental is the reality of iman. The Ashari madhhab ended up adopting irja (the doctrine that takes actions out of the core of faith) and taking actions out of the meaning of iman. So the reality of iman (faith) with them goes back to inner affirmation. Whoever affirms has believed. Outward actions are part of the perfection and signs of iman, not part of its pillars.

The third fundamental is al qadr (the decree of Allah). Their sayings about the acts of the servants differ.

The Ashari madhhab, with the majority of its followers, settled upon adopting a middle form of jabr (compulsion). Its reality is that the human being has no effect in his act, and that the act that occurs from him is only affected by the power of Allah.

The human being is simply a place where the act occurs and a tool for it. A number of their own followers have clearly said that the madhhab of al Ashari in al qadr (the decree of Allah) is a jabri madhhab (a school of thought based on compulsion).

The Ashari madhhab has many effects in a large part of the fundamentals, such as tahsin (declaring something to be good) and taqbih (declaring something to be bad), denial of reasons, and denial of causes. These have strong effects on what the madhhab affirms in many doctrinal issues, and these will be explained in more detail later.

Qanun at-Ta’sis al-ʿAqa’idi by Shaykh Sultan al-ʿUmayri page 145-148